The Case for Christ

BOOK SUMMARY The Case for Christ Lee Strobel. Pub. Zondervan Publishing House About the Author Lee Strobel, Master of Studies in Law from Yale Law School. Award-winning journalist & investigative reporter for 13 yrs. at the Chicago Tribune. Pg. 303. His life changes when his wife becomes a Christian. He fears he will lose the fun-loving companion and friend he has known for years, but instead he is surprised by subtle changes in her character. This not only intrigues him but prompts him to learn more about Jesus by using the same logical and factual approach he follows while working as an investigative crime reporter. He starts his learning quest as an unconvinced skeptic. His underlying question is, â€Å"Can a case for Christ be made beyond a reasonable doubt†? To answer this, he sets out on a fact-finding mission. For nearly two years, he interviews numerous subject matter experts and biblical scholars to answer his questions with facts and evidence. His skills in investigative reporting help uncover the truth regarding the reliability of the gospels. Introduction: Who is Jesus? This comes down to two answers: This man was, and is, the Son of God: or else a madman or something worse. Part 1: Examining the Record Timeframe Skeptics: â€Å"Some scholars say the gospels were written so far after the events that legend developed and distorted what was finally written down, turning Jesus from merely a wise teacher into the mythological Son of God. † Pg. 32 Answers: â€Å"The standard scholarly dating is that Acts was written by Luke in A. D. 61-63, because Paul was still living and under house arrest in Rome. Since Acts is the 2nd of a two-part work, we know the 1st part – the gospel of Luke – must have been written earlier than that. And since Luke incorporates parts of the gospel of Mark, that means Mark is even earlier. So if you allow one year for each writing, you end up with Mark written no later than about A. D. 60, a maximum gap of 30 yrs. after Jesus’ death. Pg. 34 That’s still within the lifetimes of various eyewitnesses of the life of Jesus, including hostile eyewitnesses who would have served as a corrective if false teachings about Jesus were going around. † Pg. 33. Eyewitness testimony is the key here. The two earliest biographies of Alexander the Great were written by Arrian and Plutarch more than 400 years after Alexander’s death in 323 B. C. , yet historians consider them to be trustworthy. So whether the gospels were written 60 yrs. or 30 yrs. after the life of Jesus, the mount of time is negligible by comparison. Pg. 33. Character Test â€Å"The gospel writers had nothing to gain except criticism, ostracism, and martyrdom. The certainly had nothing to win financially. If anything this would have provided pressure to keep quiet, to deny Jesus, to downplay him, even to forget they ever met him—yet, because of their integrity, they proclaimed what they saw. Pg. 48. Eleven apostles were put to grisly deaths, which show deep conviction for what they believed and were preaching regarding Jesus. Pg. 45 Consistency â€Å"The gospels are extremely consistent with each other by ancient standards, which are the only standards by which it’s fair to judge them†. Pg. 45 â€Å"If the gospels were identical or too consistent, this would have raised awareness that the authors had conspired among themselves to coordinate their stories in advance, and that would h ave cast doubt on them†. Pg. 45 The Adverse Witness Test â€Å"Many people had reasons for wanting to discredit this movement and would have done so if they could have simply told history better. Pg. 51. Yet, look what his opponents did say. In later Jewish writings Jesus is called a sorcerer who led Israel astray—which acknowledges that he really did work marvelous wonders, although the writers dispute the source of his power. They never say he did not work the written miracles. If critics could have attacked the movement on the basis that it was full of falsehoods or distortions, they would have. But, that’s exactly what we don’t see†. Pg. 51 Corroborating evidence outside the Bible Josephus, Jewish historian, A. D. 37-100 †¢ Wrote about Jewish wars that have corroborated by other historians and archaeological excavations. Pg. 81 †¢ Writes about James, brother of Jesus, who was called the Christ. Stoned to death in A. D. 62. Pg. 78 †¢ Wrote about Jesus the tribe of his Christian followers that had still to this day not disappeared. Pg. 79 Tacitus, a senator and a historian of the Roman Empire, A. D. 56 –117 †¢ Writes about Christ suffering extreme penalty during the reign of Tiberius at the hands of Pontius Pilatus. Refers to an immense multitude of Christ followers willing to die for their beliefs. Pg. 82 Pliny the Younger, Roman citizen, and provincial governor, A. D. 23-79 †¢ Refers to rapid spread of Christianity among all classes of people, as well as Roman citizens that are sent to Rome for trial. â€Å"They have high ethical standards and if they repeatedly admit they honor Christ as God they are executed†. Thallus, a Greek historian, wrote in A. D. 52 a history of the Mediterranean world since the Trojan War. †¢ Referenced the total darkness at the time of the crucifixion. Pg. 84 Phlegon, a Greek author in A. D. 137 †¢ Reported about the greatest eclipse of the sun when it became night at noon in A. D. 33. Pg. 85 The Mishnah, the 1st part of the Talmud, an important Jewish work compiled in A. D. 200 regarding Judaism's Oral Law †¢ Refers to Jesus as a false messiah who practiced magic and was justly condemned to death. Pg. 86 Key Findings So if we didn’t have any New Testament or other Christian writings, we could conclude from non-Christian historical writings that: 1. Jesus was a Jewish teacher 2. Many believed he performed healings and exorcisms 3. Some believed he was the Messiah 4. He was rejected by Jewish leaders 5. He was crucified under Pontius Pilate in the reign of Tiberius 6. His followers spread beyond Palestine to there were multitudes of them in Rome by A. D. 64 7. All types of people worshiped him as God. Pg. 87. The Scientific Evidence Archaeology found an inscription from the time of Tiberius, from A. D. 14-37 which names Lysanias as tetrarch in Abila near Damascus—just as Luke had written. Pg. 97 John mentions the Pool of Bethesda and details the pool had five porticoes. When archaeologists excavated in this location 40 feet below the ground, they found the pool site and 5 porticoes (walk ways) exactly as John had described. A fragment copy of John 18 was found in Egypt that papyrologists have dated to about A. D. 125. Pg. 99 Part 2: Analyzing Jesus The Identity Evidence of Gospel Writings The cross: Pontius Pilate inscribed INRI, an acronym for â€Å"Jesus the Nazarene, King of the Jews. Pg. 135 The Psychological Evidence Gary Collins, Dr. in clinical psychology. â€Å"People suffering form psychosis display inappropriate emotions such as anxiety, depression or even anger. Jesus did not display any such emotions nor did he exhibit the misperceptions that plague people suffering from psychosis. Jesus did not show any symptoms of mental illness. Jesus supported what he said by his actions—healing, raising people from the dead and the casting out of demons. Pg. 153 Prophesy Fulfillment Louis Lapides, Jewish convert to Christianity. Grew up thinking Jesus was more derogatory than anything else. After returning from Vietnam War, he experimented with various religions and drugs. Was challenged about his disbelief in Jesus which led him to read the Old Testament prophesies. Was amazed of all the prophesies that Jesus fulfilled: â€Å"Isaiah revealed the manner of the Messiah's birth (of a virgin); Micah pinpointed the place of his birth (Bethlehem); Genesis and Jeremiah specified his ancestry (a descendent of Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob, from the tribe of Judah, the house of David); The Psalms foretold his betrayal, his accusation by false witnesses, his manner of death (pierced in the hands and feet, although crucifixion hadn't been invented yet), and his resurrection (he would not decay but would ascent on high); and on and on† (p. 179). Lapides goes on to earn a bachelor's degree in theology and a master of divinity of theology. Pg. 173 Part 3: Researching the Resurrection To establish that Jesus rose from the dead, one must first establish that he died on the cross. The Medical Evidence The gospels tell us that Jesus sweat blood. â€Å"And being in anguish, he prayed more earnestly, and his sweat was like drops of blood falling to the ground. † Luke 22:44 Dr. Metherell, M. D. & PH. D. in Engineering. Pg. 193 â€Å"In severe cases of anxiety, the body releases chemicals that break down the capillaries in the sweat glands. As a result, there’s a small amount of bleeding into these glands, and the sweat comes out tinged with a very small amount of blood†. Pg. 195 According to the Dr. , when Jesus was nailed to the cross, his arms would have immediately been stretched about 6 inches in length, and both shoulders would have become dislocated. This fulfilled the Old Testament prophesy in Psalm 22, which foretold the Crucifixion hundreds of years before it took place and says, â€Å"My bones are out of joint. † When Jesus suffocated on the cross, a Roman soldier confirmed it by thrusting a spear into his side, which likely went through his lung and into the heart. When the spear was pulled out, clear fluid and a large volume of blood would have come out. Clear fluid from the lung and large amounts of blood from the heart. This was confirmed in John 19:34 when John reported he saw blood and water come out Jesus’ side when the spear was removed. Pg. 199. The Dr. testified there would be no question that Jesus was dead at this point. Pg. 200. To speed up death, Romans would use a steel shaft to shatter the victim’s lower leg bones. This would prevent the victim from pushing up with his legs to breathe. Jesus’ legs were not broken, because the soldiers already determined that he was dead, and they just used the spear to confirm it. John 19:32-36 This fulfilled another Old Testament prophesy about the Messiah, which is that his bones would remain unbroken. Ps 34:20. Pg. 200 Roman soldiers had every incentive to ensure crucified prisoners were dead when removed from the cross, because they would be put to death if a prisoner escaped. Pg. 201. â€Å"Last of all, if Jesus did not die, and he somehow walked away from the tomb, he would have been in such poor condition and looked so pitiful that his followers would have felt sorry for him and try to nurse him back to health. They would never have been prompted to start a worldwide movement based on the hope that someday they too would have a resurrected body like his†. Pg. 202 The Evidence of the Missing Body Joseph of Arimathea takes to body of Jesus, puts it in a tomb, the tomb is visited by a small group of women followers of Jesus early on the Sunday morning following his crucifixion, and they find that the tomb is empty. They see a vision of angels saying that â€Å"Jesus has risen† (p. 215). Recorded in Acts 13:29-31 and prophesied in Ps. 16:10. Pg. 219. In the earliest Jewish writings, there was nobody claiming the tomb still contained Jesus’ body. The question always was, â€Å"What happened to the body? † The Jews proposed the guards of the tomb fell asleep, while the Christians proclaimed the guards were paid off to keep quiet. Pg. 221 â€Å"The site of Jesus’ tomb was known to Christian and Jew alike. If it were not empty, it would have been impossible for a movement founded on belief in the Resurrection to have come into existence in the same city where this man had been publicly executed and buried†. Pg. 20. The Evidence of Appearances Paul 5 B. C. – 67 A. D. †¢ Wrote in both 1 Cor. 9:1 and in1 Cor. 15:8 where he personally encountered the resurrected Christ. Pg. 228. †¢ Persecuted Christians until his conversion sometime in A. D. 33. †¢ Refers to the fact that Jesus was a descendant of David, that he was the Messiah, that he was betrayed, that he was tried, crucified for our s ins, and buried, and that he rose again on the third day and was seen by many people—including James, the brother of Jesus who hadn’t believed in him prior to his crucifixion. Pg. 8 †¢ â€Å"1 Corinthians 15:8 is part of an early church creed. In this portion of Scripture, the post-resurrection Jesus is said to have appeared to Peter, the twelve, plus more than five hundred people some of whom were still alive at the writing of this epistle†. †¢ People reading this at the time could still check with eye witnesses and question them if they wanted to confirm what it said†. Pg. 229. †¢ â€Å"This creed can be traced back to about A. D. 32 to 38 which means it lends it credence as primitive, unembellished testimony about Jesus appearing to skeptics like Paul and James† Pg. 30. Then they go on to cover the numerous sightings by other eye-witnesses mentioned in the gospels and the book of Acts†. Pg. 234. Were the appearances hallucina tions? Dr. Gary Habermas, PH. D. , considered expert on the resurrection. He refutes the theory that the appearances were hallucinations because a hallucination is an individual experience that happens to one person at a time. Pg. 238 The Circumstantial Evidence J. P. Moreland, PH. D. Professor and author. â€Å"When Jesus was crucified, his followers were discouraged and depressed. They no longer had confidence that Jesus had been sent by God, because they believed anyone crucified was accursed by God. They also had been taught that God would not let his Messiah suffer death. So they dispersed. The Jesus movement was all but stopped in its tracks. † Pg. 246 â€Å"Then, after a short period of time, we see them abandoning their occupations, regathering, and committing themselves to spreading a very specific message—that Jesus Christ was the Messiah of God who died on a cross, returned to life, and was seen alive by them. Pg. 247 â€Å"And when you've got eleven credible people with no ulterior motives, with nothing to gain and a lot to lose, who all agree they observed something with their own eyes–now you've got some difficulty explaining that away† Pg. 247. The Conversion of Skeptics â€Å"The gospels tell us Jesus’ family, including James, was embarrassed by what he was claiming to be. † â€Å"Later the historian Jos ephus tells us that James was stoned to death because of his belief in his brother. Why did James’s life change? Paul tells us: the resurrected Jesus appeared to him. There’s no other explanation. † Pg. 248 Saul executed Christians when he had the chance. â€Å"Suddenly, he doesn’t just ease off Christians but joins their movement. He writes that he saw the risen Christ and heard Christ appoint him to be one of his followers. † Pg. 249 Revolutionizing Jewish Life for followers of Jesus Immediately after Jesus’ death, 10,000 Jews were willing to give up five key practices that had served them sociologically and theologically for many centuries: 1. Jewish people no longer offered sacrifices they had been doing since the time of Abraham and Moses 2. You don’t become an upcoming Jewish member simply by keeping Moses’ laws. 3. Worshipped on Sunday (when Jesus rose) instead of Saturday, a 1500 year tradition. 4. Began to worship Jesus as God (trinity) 5. The Messiah was someone who suffered and died for the sins of the world, whereas Jews had been trained to believe that the Messiah was going to be a political leader who would destroy the Roman armies. † Pg. 251 Conclusion: So let’s revisit the underlying question of this book, â€Å"Who is Jesus†? Lee Strobel concluded the evidence of history and his own experiences was too strong to ignore. He made a personal decision to receive Christ. Later, his five-year-old daughter went up to his wife and said, â€Å"Mommy, I want God to do for me what he’s done for Daddy. † This book has helped strengthen my faith in Christ, by highlighting many intriguing historical facts and evidence that corroborates what is written in the Old and New Testament concerning Jesus. I will end with the book’s last paragraph which cites a quote from C. S. Lewis, an atheist and skeptical Cambridge University professor who was eventually won over by evidence for Jesus. C. S. Lewis is most notably known for his best-selling book series The Chronicles of Narnia. â€Å"I am trying to prevent anyone saying the really foolish thing that people often say about Him: â€Å"I’m ready to accept Jesus as a great moral teacher, but I don’t accept His claim to be God. † That is the one thing we must not say. A man ho was merely a man and said the sort of things Jesus said would not be a great moral teacher. He would either be a lunatic†¦or else he would be the Devil of Hell. You must make your choice. Either this man was, and is, the Son of God: or else a madman or something worse. You can shut Him up for a fool, you can spit at Him and kill Him as a demon; or you can fall at His feet and call Him Lord and God. But let us not come with any patr onizing nonsense about His being a great human teacher. He has not left that open to us. He did not intend to. Pg. 271.

Carbohydrates Lab Report Essay

Introduction Carbohydrates are essential in foods as an energy source (starch is the main source of human calories), a flavouring (simple sugars are usually sweet) and as a functional ingredient (sucrose allows ice cream to be soft in the freezer; xanthan gum thickens a low-fat salad dressing). Carbohydrates are a type of macronutrient found in many foods and beverages. Most carbohydrates are naturally occurring in plant-based foods, such as grains. Food manufacturers also add carbohydrates to processed foods in the form of starch or added sugar. As with all our approaches to food ingredients/constituents we will first examine the structure of carbohydrates and then try to elucidate how their structures allow them to function as they do. As their name suggests, carbohydrates basically made up from sugar and water, i.e. Cx(H2O)y, although this ratio is often not strictly true and occasionally other atoms may be present. The carbons are arranges in a chain (most often 5-6 atoms) functionalized with alcohol groups. The terminal carbon either carries either an aldehyde or a ketone functional group. Carbohydrates are classified based on size of base carbon  chain, number of sugar units, location of C=O and stereochemistry. Classifications of carbohydrate are monosaccharides, disaccharides, oligosaccharides, and polysaccharides. Monosaccharide is the smallest possible sugar unit. Examples include glucose, galactose or fructose. When we talk about blood sugar we are referring to glucose in the blood; glucose is a major source of energy for a cell. In human nutrition, galactose can be found most readily in milk and dairy products, while fructose is found mostly in vegetables and fruit. When monosaccharides merge together in linked groups they are known as polysaccharides. Disaccharide is two monosaccharide molecules bonded together. Polysaccharides are polymers. A simple compound is a monomer, while a complex compound is a polymer which is made of two or more monomers. Disaccharides are polysaccharides – â€Å"poly†¦Ã¢â‚¬  specifies any number higher than one, while â€Å"di†¦Ã¢â‚¬  specifies exactly two. Examples of disaccharides include lactose, maltose, and sucrose. If you bond one glucose molecule with a fructose molecule you get a sucrose molecule. Sucrose is found in table sugar, and is often formed as a result of photosynthesis (sunlight absorbed by chlorophyll reacting with other compounds in plants). If you bond one glucose molecule with a galactose molecule you get lactose, which is commonly found in milk. Starch, glycogen, dextran and cellulose are polysaccharides. Polysaccharides differ not only in the natural of their component monosaccharides but also in the length of their chains and in the amount of chain branching that occurs. Polysaccharides function as storage materials, structural components, or protective substances. Thus, starch ( which exists in two forms: amylose and amylopectin ), glycogen and other storage polysaccharides, as readily metabolizable food, provide energy reserves for cells. Chitin and cellulose provide strong support for the skeletons of arthropods and green plants, respectively. In this experiment those activity that had been carried out means to determine the carbohydrate class of an unknown by carrying out a series of chemical reactions with the unknown and known compounds in each class of carbohydrate such as the Molisch test (general CHO), Barfoed’s test (monosaccharides), Fehling’s test (reducing sugars), Benedict’s test (reducing sugars) and Iodine test (amylose). ACTIVITY 3.1, MOLISCH TEST: A GENERAL TEST FOR CARBOHYDRATES OBJECTIVE: To test the carbohydrate solution MATERIALS: 1 % of carbohydrate solutions( lactose, glucose, starch, sucrose, cellulose, fructose, apple and cabbage ), distilled water(as control tube), concentrated sulphuric acid, Molisch reagent. APPARATUS: Test tubes, test tube holder, dropper, 5ml pipette, glass rod, test tube rack, fume cupboard CAUTION: Molish reagent contains concentrated sulfuric acid , which is toxic and corrosive. It can cause severe burns. Prevent eye, skin clothing, and combustible material contact. Avoid ingesting the substance.If you spill any reagent or acid, immediately notify your laboratory instructor. NOTE: Do not place your thumb over the open end of a test tube when mixing its contents. Your laboratory instructor will suggest ways in which you can safely and thoroughly mix the contents of a test tube. PROCEDURES: 1. 2 ml of each of the 1% carbohydrate solutions that have been prepared is added into one set of labelled test tubes. 2. 2 drops of Molisch reagent are added to each test tube and is mixed well with a clean glass stirring rod. 3. The test tube is inclined. Then 3ml of concentrated sulphuric acid is added slowly and carefully down the side of the tube to form a layer below the sugar solution.( This step is performed inside the fume cupboard ). 4. The resulting solution did not been shook or mixed. 5. The change of the solution is observed and recorded. ( A purple ring at the interface is indicative of a carbohydrate ). 6. The test solutions containing Molisch reagent is discarded into the container provided by laboratory instructor. RESULT: DISCUSSION: Carbohydrates undergo dehydration reactions (loss of water) in the presence of concentrated sulfuric acid. Pentoses and hexoses form five member oxygen  containing rings on dehydration. The five member ring, known as furfural, further reacts with Molisch reagent to form colored compounds. Pentoses are then dehydrated to furfural, while hexoses are dehydrated to 5-hydroxymethylfurfural. Either of these aldehydes, if present, will condense with two molecules of naphthol to form a purple-colored product. A positive reaction is indicated by appearance of a purple ring at the interface between the acid and test layers. Monosaccharides give a rapid positive test. Glucose and fructose are monosaccharide. Disaccharides and polysaccharides react more slowly than monosaccharide. Sucrose and lactose are disaccharide which also gave purple color ring. Starch and cellulose gave slightly purple color because they are polysaccharides. Distilled water gave negative test because it is not carbohydrate. A large apple has around 28-31 grams of carbohydrate. Apple and cabbage contain carbohydrate so that they gave purple ring in this test. CONCLUSION: Glucose, lactose, fructose, sucrose, starch and cellulose all are carbohydrates which give positive test for Molisch test. A sample of distilled water is prepared and tested as the controlling sample. ACTIVITY 3.2, BARFOED’S TEST:A GENERAL TEST TO DISTINGUISH BETWEEN MONOSACCHARIDE AND DISACCHARIDES OBJECTIVE: To distinguish the given carbohydrate solutions as monosaccharides or disaccharides. MATERIALS: 1 % of carbohydrate solutions( lactose, glucose, starch, sucrose, cellulose, fructose), distilled water (as control tube), Barfoed’s reagent APPARATUS: Test tubes, test tube holder, 5 ml pipette, pipette filler, stop watch, water bath CAUTION : Barfoed’s reagent is corrosive and an irritant. If you spill any of the solution on yourself or on the bench, immediately notify your laboratory instructor. PROCEDURES 1. 5 ml of each of the carbohydrate solutions is added into one set of the  labelled test tubes. 2. 5 ml of Barfoed’s reagent is added to each test.  3. The contents of each tube are shook well. All the tubes are placed in an actively boiling water bath at the same time. 4. After the water starts boiling again, the solutions is heated for 3.5 min. ( Timing is important since a false positive test can be obtained for monosaccharides with disaccharide, if the disaccharides are heated for more than 3.5 min thereby breaking down ( hydrolyzing ) to monosaccharides ). 5. During this period, the tubes are observed closely and any change of clarity of the solutions is noted. ( A positive test for monosaccharides is the appearance of a red precipitate of Cu?O within 1 or 2 minutes, if no precipitate forms it indicates the presence of a disaccharide). RESULT: 1% CARBOHYDRATE SOLUTION FORMATION OF RED PRECIPITATE Fructose Yes Glucose Yes Cellulose No Lactose No Sucrose No Starch No Distilled water(as control tube) No DISCUSSION: Barfoed’s test distinguishes monosaccharides from disaccharides. Positive test for monosaccharides is the appearance of red precipitate (Cu2O) within 1-2 minutes. If no precipitate formed, indicates the presence of disaccharide. The red precipitate come from the reaction between the  reduction of copper (II) acetate to copper(I) oxide (Cu2O). RCHO + 2Cu2+ + 2H2O > RCOOH + Cu2Ov + 4H+ The aldehyde group of the monosaccharide which normally forms a cyclic hemiacetal is oxidized to the carboxylate. Glucose and fructose which are monosaccharides show positive result in this test. Reducing disaccharides undergo the same reaction, but do so at a slower rate. So, the timing to heat the sample is set to 3.5 minutes. However, the samples are heated no more than 3.5 minutes to prevent the disaccharide breaking down to monosaccharide. Lactose, sucrose, cellulose, starch and distilled water showed negative result in this test. CONCLUSION: Only monosaccharide will give an immediate red precipitate in Barfoed’s test that is glucose and fructose the other remaining solutions which are cellulose, lactose, sucrose, starch and distilled water do not show any changes. ACTIVITY 3.3 FEHLING TEST: FOR REDUCING OBJECTIVE: To distinguish the reducing sugars and non-reducing sugars MATERIALS: 1% of carbohydrate solutions ( glucose, fructose, cellulose, lactose, sucrose, starch ), distilled water(as control tube), Fehling solution A ( 69.28 grams copper (II) sulfate pentahydrate dissolved in 1 litre of distilled water), Fehling solution B ( 346 grams Rochelle salt ( potassium sodium tartrate tetrahydrate) and 120 grams sodium hydroxide in 1 litre of distilled water) APPARATUS: 5 ml pipette, test tubes, test tube holder, test tube rack, pipette filler, stop watch PROCEDURES: 1. 5 ml of carbohydrate solutions is added into one set of test tubes. 2. By using different glass pipettes, 5 ml of Fehling A and 5 ml of Fehling B are added into each test tubes. 3. The solution is heated in a boiling water bath for 5-10 minutes. 4. Red brick precipitate is formed for positive results. 5. Changes in test tubes are recorded. RESULT: Samples Result Lactose Positive-red brick precipitate Glucose Positive-red brick precipitate Fructose Positive-red brick precipitate Starch Negative-no changes Distilled water Negative-no changes Cellulose Negative-no changes Sucrose Negative-no changes DISCUSSION: Fehling’s solution is used to test for the presence of a reducing sugar. Fehling’s solution was based on the aldehyde or ketone groups in the sugar structures. A sugar is classified as a reducing sugar only if it has an open-chain form with an aldehyde group or a free hemiacetal group. the presence of aldehydes but not ketones is detected by reduction of the deep blue solution of copper(II) to a red precipitate of insoluble copper oxide. Fructose, glucose and lactose show positive result in this test. All monosaccharides are reducing sugars. Many disaccharides, like lactose, also have a reducing form, as one of the two units may have an open-chain form with an aldehyde group. However, sucrose, in which the anomeric carbons of the two units are linked together, are non-reducing disaccharides since neither of the rings is capable of opening. Polysaccharides (sugars with multiple chemical rings) are non-reducing sugars. Polysaccharides have closed structures, which use free atoms to bond together their multiple rings, and take a much longer time to be broken down. So, starch and cellulose which are polysaccharides have negative result in Fehling’s test. Distilled water is not reducing sugar also shows negative result. CONCLUSION: Fehling test is the common test which is used to determine the presence of reducing sugar. Fructose, lactose and glucose are reducing sugars which give brick red precipitate after the solutions are heated. ACTIVITY 3.4 BENEDICT’S TEST: FOR REDUCING OBJECTIVE: To test for reducing sugars MATERIALS: 1% of carbohydrate solutions ( glucose, fructose, cellulose, lactose, sucrose, starch ), 3M hydrochloric acid (HCl), Benedict’s reagent, distilled water APPARATUS: Test tubes, test tube holder, test tube rack, 5 ml pipette, pipette filler, dropper, stop watch, water bath PROCEDURES 1. 5 ml of Benedict’s reagent and 2 ml of carbohydrate are added to a test tube and each tube is shook thoroughly. 2. All the tubes are placed in a boiling water bath at the same time. The solutions are heated for 5-6 min. 3. Any changes in color, in the transparencies and in the formation and color of any precipitate are observed and recorded. 4. Later, 4 drops of 3M HCl are added to 5 ml of 1 % sucrose solution and is heated in the boiling water bath for 5 min. 5. 1 % starch solution is treated in the same way but the heating period was extended to 25-30 min. 6. 1-2 ml of each of solution is applied with Benedict’s test in the same manner as before. 7. The results are compared with those obtained without acid treatment. RESULT: Sugar solution Result of colour of the solution Starch Light blue Lactose Brick red precipitate are formed Fructose Brick red precipitate are formed Sucrose Light blue Cellulose Light blue + white precipitate Glucose Brick red precipitate are formed Distilled water Light blue Sucrose + HCI Brick red precipitate are formed Starch + HCI Light DISCUSSION: The Benedict’s test is used to detect the presence of reducing sugars (sugars with a free aldehyde or ketone group) such as glucose, fructose and lactose. All monosaccharides are reducing sugars; they all have a free reactive carbonyl group. Some disaccharides have exposed carbonyl groups and are also reducing sugars. Lactose which is disaccharides also called reducing sugar as it has the exposed carbonyl groups. Other disaccharides such as sucrose and starch are non-reducing sugars and will not react with Benedict’s solution. Benedict’s reagent is a mild oxidant with CuSO4, Cu (II) sulfate, as one of the reagents. In the presence of a reducing sugar, the blue solution of Cu (II) or Cu+2, is changed to a brick red/brown precipitate of Copper (I) or Cu+1 oxide,Cu2O. If there a small or large amount of the reducing sugar present, the color would range from green to brick red respectively. RCHO + 2Cu2+ + 4OH- > RCOOH + Cu2O + 2H2O Sucrose indirectly produces a posit ive result with Benedict’s reagent if heated with dilute hydrochloric acid prior to the test, although after this treatment it is no longer sucrose. The addition of  HCl hydrolysed the non-reducing sugar, as it split it up into its component monomers. The monomers are reducing sugars which gave the positive result on the second reducing sugar test. The acidic conditions and heat break the glycosidic bond in sucrose through hydrolysis. The products of sucrose decomposition are glucose and fructose, both of which can be detected by Benedict’s reagent, as described above. This same goes for starch. But since starch has larger component compare to sucrose so it took a longer time to hydrolyse. That the purpose of heat it in longer time compare to sucrose. Without the addition of acid to sucrose solution, starch solution, the test given is negative. The solutions remain clear blue after the addition of Benedict’s reagent and heating. Tap water is used only to show the example of negative result of Benedict’s test. Thus it will not show any changes compare to the carbohydrates. CONCLUSION: Benedict’s test is the common test which is used to determine the existence of reducing sugar. Fructose, lactose, and glucose are reducing sugars which give positive test. Starch and sucrose are non reducing sugars which give positive results after adding hydrochloric acid. ACTIVITY 3.6, IODINE TEST: FOR POLYSACCHARIDES OBJECTIVE: To test for polysaccharides MATERIALS: 0.01M iodine, 0.12M KI , 1% carbohydrate solutions (cellulose and starch) , distilled water APPARATUS: Test tubes, test tube rack , dropper. PROCEDURE: 1. Few drop of 0.01M iodine in 0.12M KI added to 1% starch and cellulose solutions. 2. Any changes to the colour are observed. RESULT: 1% CARBOHYDRATE SOLUTION COLOUR OBSERVED Starch Vivid blue Cellulose Yellowish brown DISCUSSION: Starch gives positive result in Iodine test as the color of solution change from yellow to dark blue. The immediate formation of a vivid blue color indicates amylose. Vivid blue coloration forms due to the polyiodide complex formed. Cellulose is derived from D-glucose units, which condensed through beta(1->4)-glycosidic bond. This give cellulose to be a straight polymer therefore, it can’t coil around iodine to produce blue colour as starch does. Only starch gives the color of vivid blue, this is because it contains amylase. The iodine molecules slip inside of the amylase coil. The amylose, or straight chain portion of starch, forms helices where iodine molecules assemble, forming a dark blue color. CONCLUSION: The Iodine test is used to test for the presence of starch. Starch is a type of polysaccharide carbohydrate which is made up of amylose and amylopectin. It is one of the main sources of carbohydrate and present naturally in plant. Amylose in starch form dark blue complex with iodine. ACTIVITY 2.2 SOLUBILITY AND DIGESTIBILITY TEST SOLUBILITY TEST OBJECTIVE: To test the solubility in hot water and digestion by amylase. MATERIALS: 5g of starch, 5g of cellulose, distilled water APPARATUS: Test tubes, test tube holder, glass rod, test tube rack, fume cupboard, 2 centrifuge tubes, analytical balance, cylinder, graduated pipette, pipette filler, 2 evaporator dishes. PROCEDURE: 1 5 g of starch is measured and put into a centrifuge tube;  2 40 ml of distilled of water is measured and poured into the same centrifuge  tube; 3 Step 1 to 2 is repeated by replacing the starch with cellulose; 4 Both of the tubes are heated: the tube containing starch is heated for about 2-3 minutes whereas the tube containing cellulose is heated for about 10 minutes; 5 After heating, both of the content of the tubes are allowed to cool down slightly; 6 The tubes are put into a centrifuge with 3500 rpm for 10 minutes; 7 Empty weight for both of the evaporator dishes is measured; 8 5 mL of the supernatant from both of the tubes is pipetted and poured into two separate evaporator dishes; 9 The evaporator dishes are left in the oven overnight 10 The weight of the evaporator dishes is measured again. 11 The solubility results are recorded and tabulated. RESULT: Solubility (%) = Weight of dried supernatant (g) Weight of the dried carbohydrates (g) For starch, solubility (%) = 0.0093g 50.0023g = 0.01860 % For cellulose, solubility (%) = 0.0010g 50.0027g = 0.002000 % Carbohydrates Weight of dry carbohydrates (gram) Weight of dried supernatant (gram) Solubility (%) Starch 50.0023g 24.8768g- 24.8675g= 0.0093g 0.01860 Cellulose 50.0027g 21.2150g- 21.2140g= 0.0010g 0.002000 DISCUSSION: In this activity, the solubility is defined as the percentage ratio of the weight of dried supernatant to the weight of the dry starch. Solubility can be interpreted as the amount of the dissolved compound that is present in the test solution. From the calculations done, we can see that starch, with a percentage of solubility at 0.01860 %, whereas cellulose have 0.002000 %. Starch and cellulose are two very similar polymers. In fact, they are both made from the same monomer, glucose, and have the same glucose-based repeat units. Since the sugar molecules contain the hydroxyl group or –OH, Thus it can form hydrogen bonds with water molecules, which makes it soluble in water, but only to a limited extent. However, the glucose units in starch are connected by alpha linkages while the glucose units in cellulose are connected by beta linkages. In starch, all the glucose repeat units are oriented in the same direction. But in cellulose, each succesive glucose unit is rotated 180 degrees around the axis of the polymer backbone chain, relative to the last repeat unit. Although cellulose contains hydroxyl groups too, but most of them are hydrogen-bonded to each other when the microfibrils stack together, which accounts for the strength of cellulose fibers. There’s less free hydroxyl groups that can hydrogen bond with water molecules, other than those hydroxyl groups that’s present at the end of each cellulose chain, which causes the cellulose to be less soluble in water when compared to starch. CONCLUSION: Although both starch and cellulose are complex carbohydrates, which have large molecular weight size, significantly reducing their affinity for water, but the hydroxyl groups that exist in the monomers itself actually contributes to their insignificant solubility. However, the solubility will increase when these complex carbohydrates are broken down into its monomers where the hydroxyl groups can form hydrogen bonds with other water molecules easily due to the reduced molecular weight and size that affects the affinity for water. DIGESTIBILITY TEST OBJECTIVE: To determine the digestibility of complex carbohydrates MATERIALS: Starch powder, cellulose powder, enzyme amylase, benedict’s solution, distilled water APPARATUS: 2 centrifuge tubes, measuring cylinder, analytical balance, pipette fillers, graduated pipettes, 2 droppers, 5 test tubes. PROCEDURE: 1 5 g of starch is measured and put into a centrifuge tube;  2 40 ml of distilled of water is measured and poured into the same centrifuge tube; 3 Step 1 to 2 is repeated by replacing the starch with cellulose; 4 Both of the tubes are heated: the tube containing starch is heated for about 2-3 minutes whereas the tube containing cellulose is heated for about 10 minutes; 5 After heating, both of the tubes are allowed to cool down slightly; 6 5 mL of starch is pipetted into a test tube;  7 Step 6 is repeated using a different test tube but a drop of amylase is dropped into it; 8 5 mL of cellulose is pipetted into a test tube; 9  Step 8 is repeated using a different test tube but a drop of amylase is dropped into it; 10 5 mL of distilled water is pipetted into the last test tube, and a drop of amylase is dropped into it; 11 20 drops of benedict’s solution is dropped into five of the test tubes; 12 Any changes occurred is recorded and tabulated. Result Samples Colours of the solutions Benedict’ s test 5 g of starch blue Negative 5 g of starch with amylase Brick red precipitate is formed Positive 5 g of cellulose blue Negative 5 g of cellulose with amylase blue Negative Distilled water with amylase Blue Negative DISCUSSION: Amylase is one of the many members of a class of enzyme, hydrolases, that catalyze the hydrolysis of starch into smaller carbohydrate molecules such as maltose (a molecule composed of two glucose molecules). Two categories of amylases, denoted alpha and beta, differ in the way they attack the bonds of the starch molecules. Alpha-amylase is widespread among living organisms. In the digestive systems of humans and many other mammals, an alpha-amylase called ptyalin is produced by the salivary glands, whereas pancreatic amylase is secreted by the pancreas into the small intestine. In the experiment, the test tube that contains only distilled water served as a control for this experiment. As for the test tubes that contain starch and cellulose without the amylase, they give a negative result for Benedict’s test, because for starch and cellulose, since both of them are complex carbohydrates, thus they have very few carbonyl groups which contribute to the compound’s reducing properties. Starch is a non-reducing sugar which shows negative result in the Benedict’s test. As for the test tube that contains starch and cellulose with the addition of a drop of enzyme, amylase, the test tube with starch gives a positive result, but not the test tube with cellulose. As we all know, enzyme amylase can only catalyzes the breakdown of starch into simpler sugars, but not cellulose. Cellulose only digested by cellulase enzyme. It is impossible for human digestive enzymes to break the glycosidic bond. Therefore, only the test tube containing starch treated with amylase gives a positive result for the Benedict’s test. CONCLUSION: Enzyme is a highly specific catalyst which can only converts a specific set of reactants into specific products. Amylase only hydrolyze the starch but not cellulose. From here, we can say that the human digestive system would not be able to digest the cellulose, because our digestive system only contains amylase, and not cellulose. Therefore in the perspective of a  human, we can conclude that the digestibility of starch is higher than cellulose, provided that the enzyme amylase is present.

Pope Joan Essay

During the Middle Ages, the Church and the Emperor competed for control of the Holy Roman Empire. The Church and the Emperor ruled jointly over the Holy Roman Empire. Although the Church had a great deal of power, the Emperor was equally as powerful in his own way. Moreover, the powers of Church and the Emperor conflicted with each other. This led to a variety of power struggles. The novel Pope Joan by Donna Wolff Cross explores these power struggles and vividly shows how they make life more difficult for people at all levels of society. This Is very potent and recurring theme In the novel.There are many powers that collide with one another In the novel; however, the dominating powers In the Holy Roman Empire are two Institutions that oppose each other: the Roman Catholic Church and the Emperor. Both consider themselves In charge. The Church declares Itself more powerful than the Emperor, and uses Its power to preserve loyalty to the Church and Its power over the people. Pope Gregory demonstrates his power by going to the Emperor to end the feud between the Emperor and his sons. This shows that he, as the Pope, has enough power to end wars and disputes with he Emperor.Pope Gregory comments on his own power as he prays duteous, â€Å"Christ Jesus, give me wisdom I need this day†¦ Show me the way to avert this unholy war and reconcile these rebellious sons to the Emperor their father. † (Cross 174) On the contrary, the Emperor arguably does not have as much power as the Pope; however, the Emperor, Lothario, believes he does. â€Å"Trust in God, Count Gerald†¦ I'm Heaven's anointed king; He will not fail to grant us victory. † (Cross 217) Emperor Lothario believes he is truly connected to God. Throughout the novel he feels that he should rule over doth his kingdom and the Church.The power struggle between the Pope and the Emperor leads them to try to sabotage each other and increases the misery and suffering of their people. The Emperor tri es to acquire more power by having the Pope assassinated while the Pope makes sure the Emperor's power is in check by killing the Emperors allies. An example of this is the Pope's order to kill Theodore and Leo, two of the Emperors allies. â€Å"Several times they stumbled and almost fell on the tile floor, slippery with blood†¦ The men forced Theodore and Leo to their knees and pulled their heads forward.One man raised a long sword over Oleo's neck and with one quick stroke, decapitated him. But Threshold's neck was thick†¦ It took three or four sword strokes to cleave his head from his body. † (Cross 44) This shows how the Pope uses assassination to thwart the power of the Emperor. In addition, It shows how in the struggle for power, even those at the top of society are not safe. The Emperor and the Church have different ways to maintain power over their people. These methods of control cause considerable misery for the people. The Church retains its power by thre atening the people with Hell In the afterlife.It stays In power by making the people fear for their soul's eternal damnation and this causes a great deal of spiritual distress. For example, a young boy Is despondent as he confesses to Pope Leo about the Innocent blood he has shed because he fears for his Immortal soul: â€Å"l cannot live with what Eve done. Pronounce me my penance ; I will bear any Emperor uses his armies and weaponry to stay in power. It is the loyalty of the Emperor's army that enables him to do this. The Emperor's troops' are so loyal to him and that they are willing and eager to kill anyone. With a wild shout, a group from he imperial vanguard burst out of formation, spurring their horses into a disorderly run, racing against one another for the glory of being the first to engage the enemy before the eyes of their Emperor. † (Cross 219) The Church and Emperor also use similar methods to keep their power. For example, both punish their people for crimes i n similar ways. The Emperor has knights that manage the law and the Pope has church officials that handle the law. Both of their methods of punishment for crimes are similar and harsh.For instance, in the novel the Emperor's lords boil a Nan's hand and arm for lying about stealing farm animals. An event similar to this relates to how one of the church officials handles a thief by having his hands cut off, â€Å"Benedict screamed as his severed hands dropped to the ground, spurting blood†¦ The swordsman nailed Benedicts severed hands to the side of the she-wolf. † (Cross 297) The Emperor and the Church both keep their power using similar and different methods of control which cause great pain for their people. Although the Emperor does have power, he always needs to assert it to keep the Church's power is in check.Emperor Lothario makes many bold attempts to control the Church. In one instance, when the Church does not go through with a consecration, Emperor Lothario wage s full out war on the Church. One of Pope Egregious informants comes to Serious and bellows to him, â€Å"His soldiers plunder all before them, ransacking the farms, carrying off the livestock, pulling up the vines by their roots. They take what they want, and what they do not want, they burn. Those who get in their way they kill without mercy- women, old men, babes in arms- none are spared.The horror-† (Cross 273) This action led by Emperor Lothario does not succeed, but it causes many people to suffer and die. Another attempt to decrease the Church's power occurs when Emperor Lothario conspires with Anastasia to make the people supporting the Church pledge their loyalty to the Emperor. â€Å"An oath is only words. The people need a Pope who can lead them back to their old ways- to the Freakish Empire, and to you, my liege. † (Cross 291) The last attempt that Emperor Lothario makes toward the Church is the assassination of the commander of Pope Jean's militia, Gerald: â€Å"†¦The men abruptly heeled, pulled weapons from the hidden folds of their garments, and came at Gerald. â€Å"(Cross 402) In this attempt, the Emperor succeeds, and kills two birds with one stone. The Emperor weakens the militia by killing its gallant, cunning leader and kills the Pope by putting her under a prolonged period of stress. This causes her to have a premature birth and she dies in labor. Emperor Lothario makes many attempts to decrease the power of the Church, and is successful in the end but a considerable personal cost to many. Both the Church and the Emperor dominate the Holy RomanEmpire, but Anastasia who is able to play both sides against each other. Anastasia has ties with the Church and the Emperor. Anastasia uses both connections to his advantages, which grant him powerful positions among the two. Because Anastasia knows how politics work, he is able to wrap the Emperor around his finger and earn rewards. â€Å"Once Lothario was crowned in his fathe r's place, he would know how to reward Anastasia for the work he had done here. † (Cross 176) Anastasia has helped one day help make him Pope; however, Anastasia never reaches the title of Pope.Anastasia has power that that accompanies wealth and also possesses the power of persuasion and shrewdness. Anastasia with his intellect is able to earn high positions within the Church which allow him to be an informant to the Emperor. † Soon after Egregious election, Anastasia would be appointed Bishop of Castellated, a perfect position from which to ascend the papal throne after Serious†¦ † (Cross 242) Anastasia also uses his father's influence to persuade his adversaries to vote him Pope. â€Å"Before God the priest is lying Surely my countrymen will not believe the word of foreigner over that of a fellow Roman!Anastasia uses his adversaries to vote for him as Pope, but Joan accuses him of being corrupted. Even though Anastasia never reached Pope, he had power that helped him in the Church and with the Emperor. Anastasia is one of the people in the novel who has power and who is usually discreet about using it. Although there are many different power struggles in the novel between the Church and the Emperor, there are some people who were not able to gain their desired power. One minor character that never regained their power was Jean's father, the Canon. When he lost his position asCanon, he asked his daughter to get him a position in the Church again but he died shortly afterwards. Mimi have lost your position? † [Joan inquired] Reluctantly, her father nodded. â€Å"But Doe violent, I have the strength and skill to do God's work yet. † (Cross 210) One person who never gains their full power over the Church was Anastasia. Anastasia never becomes Pope because Emperor Lothario dies before making him Pope. â€Å"Lothario was long dead†¦ † (Cross 407) Another person who never gains full power over the Holy Roman Empire was Lothario. He dies and is never able to control the Church from within with one of his adversaries. .. Having died after a few months of leaving Rome. His throne had gone to his first son Louis II†¦ † We see how these characters are unable to fulfill their destinies because of the viscous competition for power. The novel, Pope Joan, encompasses many different kinds of power struggles. The main power struggle is between the Church and the Emperor. Although both have the same religious views, they have very different views on who is in charge. Pope Joan illustrates the many different forms of power and power struggles found during the medieval era of the Holy Roman Empire.In addition, the novel shows how these power struggles affect people at all levels of society to varying degrees. Those at the top may suffer death, be disenfranchised or be discredited. Soldiers willingly charge to their deaths in blind devotion to their Emperor. Those at bottom of society may suffer d eath, disfigurement or cruelty at the hands of unsympathetic soldiers or harsh magistrates. Pope Joan shows how the conflict at the top between the Church and the Emperor permeates down through all levels of society making life during the Middle Ages more difficult for everyone.

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PSYCHOLOGY OF INDIVIDUAL AND ORGANISATIONAL HEALH Essay

PSYCHOLOGY OF INDIVIDUAL AND ORGANISATIONAL HEALH - Essay Example Therefore, it is important to understand how these common drugs work, its relation in history and to the economy as well as prevention and rehabilitation in the workplace. One of the most commonly used drugs in the workplace are the use of alcohol and tobacco products which are controlled substances regulated by the UK government and legislation. Alcohol is a depressant which depresses the central nervous system as well as other functions. Many people who are stressed turn to alcohol due to the wide variety of alcoholic substances that are available as well as the accessibility. Alcohol can act on multiple neurotransmitters in the body which affects the reinforcing behavior which can make it a liability in the workplace. Alcohol decreases the secretion of acetylcholine, can elevate GABA levels as well as increase dopamine and epinephrine (Light 1986). Acetylcholine is involved specifically with the regulation of the central nervous system which in turn under the influence of alcohol slows down reflexes, lowers concentration rate, blood pressure, etc. Increases in dopamine and GABA can also lead to a state of calmness. In contrast, many people find that they become tired at school and work as well. This has lead to a prevalence of tobacco in the workplace whether in the form of dip or in cigarettes. Nicotine in tobacco is a stimulant which acts on nicotinic receptors. It causes an increase in acetylcholine which is what causes the increased awareness and attention as well as keeps dopamine from breaking down as quickly by causing it to stay in the synapse longer. Also, with smoking you have the problem of positive reinforcement in that they associate the relief of stress when they smoke. Knowing the basic principles of human behavior and drug abuse is the first step in understanding why that pattern of behavior develops and what preventative measures can be taken to inhibit this behavior. It is also important to consider the personal factors that can make a pers on use a drug. Some of the main ones are hereditary factors, personality, psychological conditioning, and social class (Hanson et Al., 2006, p. 45). In genetics, it has been proven that certain people are more susceptible to drug use than others. In determining who is at risk for alcoholism, researchers discovered that genes encoding for alcohol dehydrogenase and aldehyde dehydrogenase play a role in determining a person’s susceptibility to alcoholism (Foroud et Al., 2010, p. 65). Personality and psychological conditioning are also important when determining susceptibility to drug use. Those that have what is considered to be an â€Å"addictive personality† may become fixed on drug use which then as a result can become an addiction based on psychological conditioning i.e. smoking. Social class and status may also play a role in drug use due to the type of budget that their income is based off of. The history of alcohol and tobacco use is also important in understanding their occurrence in the marketplace. There were a few key points in history that might have influenced the regulation of drugs and alcohol in the workplace and out as well. In the Victorian era, it was common for the gentleman to smoke and have a brandy while they discussed politics and other important matters. It was also common place for the users to engage in other elicit drugs such as cocaine and opium (Victorian Substance Abuse 2000). As both

Optical parameter Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

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Concert Report - Essay Example If technically superior and sophisticated, but with an accessibility that allows anyone to be able to listen and appreciate it. The evening was a pleasant and exciting event for music as jazz musician created a magical atmosphere. Listening to smooth jazz is similar to listening to pop music. The ways in which they are similar includes the easiness of listening, the simplicity that appears to be present even though there is obvious technical difficulty involved, and that it creates a sense of joy even when its being sorrowful or melancholy. Stetcu defined as smooth jazz as something that is driven by a popular audience appreciation (25). This in no way diminishes its presence, but instead provides a means for the principles of jazz to be more enjoyable as the composition takes its complexity and supports it with a lighter presentation. Most of the music that was playing seemed joyful. There is a certain amount of happiness that comes through this particular style of music that may not necessarily be in other forms of jazz. One of the interesting things of note was the way in which the drummer played. Some drummers tend to be extremely active and aggressive as they beat on the skins. Even during his solos, Ramon Banda was laid-back in the way which he approached his methods of play even though this sounds did not seem restrained. His solos flowed seamlessly into the rest of music as the other instruments dropped away and then joined him. This particular style was not necessarily aggressive, but that did not mean that his beat was repressed. He was constant and vigilant in the way in which he created an underlying rhythm. The duet between Henry Franklin and Gilbert Castallanos was in inspiring. The complexity of what they were playing created an overtone of the smooth jazz line with a sophistication that ran through

Industry Trends and Issues Report (Tourism and Hospitality Issues ) Lab

Industry Trends and Issues (Tourism and Hospitality Issues ) - Lab Report Example This provides an excellent opportunity for the emerging nations like South Africa, to develop and project their countries as popular tourist destinations. The Republic of South Africa, situated at the southern tip of the African continent is home to some of the most spectacular places and rich and varied spectrum of flora and fauna. The country, which is considered to be the third most bio – diverse country in the world, hosts a large variety of living wealth2. It offers most exotic travel destinations and caters to a wide range of tourists that enthralls them with its stunning coastal towns of Hermanus, Cape Town, Knysna, and Durban, and mountaineering in Hogsback as well as Drakensberg. The Cape Winelands offers world class wines while the Kruger National Park attracts tourists with its wild life safari packages. It was recognized as one of the developing world’s Ten Best Ethical Travel Destinations in 2008 Ethical Traveler Report3. The existence of a rich bio diverse environment, scenic locales and breath taking views coupled with its increasing popularity as the most favorite emerging travel destinations are indicati ve of a positive wave of tourism culture which can be exploited and nurtured through proper planning and implementation of measures to support such large influx of travelers in order to encourage and sustain its image as tourism destination of choice. This report is prepared by our organization, XYZ ltd (an independent private research organization), to be presented to the TBCSA – Tourism Business Council of South Africa. With more than 10% of the country’s resources protected by conservation regulations, it has a vast expanse of unblemished land which is rich in bio – diversity, abundant wild life, a large variety of flora and fauna as well as vibrant and culturally diverse cities. This however, has been met

Carpet-Weavers Morocco - Journal Assignment Essay Example for Free

Carpet-Weavers Morocco Journal Assignment Essay Im sure that all of you have at least heard of, if not seen the famous carpets of Morocco. You must have also heard things like, What fine craftsmanship!, What fabulous designs and prints!, What a work of art! or What fine skill!, from people who purchase these carpets for huge sums of money for the various purposes such as praying, decoration etc. But have you ever taken a moment to think, of the origin of these carpets, of the person who sits up day and night weaving these carpets which are sold for thousands, but what does he get out of this and so on, well if not, then Im sure that after reading this, all these questions will be answered. In case you didnt know, Morocco is a relatively poor country and most of the carpets woven there, are all hand-made and are woven by children, children like me who are forced to weave due to unfortunate circumstances. Like me there are hundreds of others who have to live the same unfortunate lives for the same reasons. Let me give you a brief outline of what it is like to be a carpet weaver. Firstly, you have to wake up at five in the morning and get dressed. Everybody is allowed is five minutes in the showers, which is just about enough because the water is ice cold and it takes you just that long to g et used to the temperature of the water. After that, we have a so-called breakfast, if thats what you would call it, which is absolutely tasteless and seems stale. After that, we immediately get to work and start weaving. Thread by thread and knot by knot, we have to be really careful and focused, and should there be any mistake, we can hope not to see the sun for a couple of days, at minimum that is! We have to work constantly until ten at night, when we quickly eat dinner, which is just as bad as breakfast, if not worse and then go to sleep, hoping that tomorrow will be a better day and we will be freed from this life of misery, but then, every morning, it starts all over again, the same torture, the same shouting voices of the slave drivers and the same miserable life. You might wonder, what may lead one to have to live such a life at such a small age, the answer lies deep within our backgrounds and circumstances. Ive been weaving ever since I was seven years old, till today, when Im thirteen. Before this, I used to live with my family, we werent so rich but we were surviving. There were six of us, me, my two brothers, my sister and my parents. All of us used to go to a small school in the nearby village. My mother was a vegetable seller and my father was a drunkard who had a small job at a toothpaste factory. Then one day, due to excessive intake of alcohol, he passed away. His death really didnt make much of a difference, as he was no good anyway, but still, we were slightly affected financially. Then one day, a rich merchant came to our village, and started offering all the children jobs and promised that he would pay us huge sums of money, if we worked at his factory. Without thinking twice, I took the job and I was taken away to a far away place to work at his factories. Had I known what lay ahead, I would have never gone with him, but at the time, we needed money and I felt that this was the best opportunity. We were immediately taken away to a deserted and remote area where there was no way of contacting anyone. We were told to do as he said, and our families would be kept happy. I never the money that had been promised, instead, all I got was a gloomy place to work, eat and sleep, the merchant kept on telling me that he was sending my family the promised money, but after knowing the reality of this place, I doubt my family ever saw a fraction of what was promised, and I also doubt that they are alive right now. As you clearly saw, I was tricked into working here and once I was in, there was no way out; I had no choice but to work at the factory, because the merchant said that there was no place to go from here and if anyone tried, they would be killed. The first of my days here were very hard, when I first started learning how to weave, I made many mistakes, but quickly learnt and became perfect. Everyday here is like hell, maybe worse. How I long to outside and play like a normal child. I want to go to school and learn and become someone and do good for humanity, but instead, my life is wasted here, weaving carpets forever. I feel pity for the younger children who have just arrived. They all seem really scared as they are very young and have no idea of whats going on and what their lives are about to become. We have to toil hard and work till late at night and finish at least three carpets in five days, or else we dont get dinner. You have to really focus all your attention into the weaving and sometimes we get so lost into the weaving, that we lose track of time; its as if, were in another world, much different from this one and that helps to focus more and eases the pain a bit. When weaving, you have to be very careful, for just the slightest mistake could ruin the entire carpet. I feel I have become like a pale shadow of my former self, before, I was carefree and happy with my family, but now, I feel scared and I am uncertain about my future; I dont know what will happen to me after the merchant finds no use of me, or will I spend my entire life here just sitting and weaving? There are hundreds of unanswered questions and queries in my mind and Im sure that most of us feel the same way as me scared and uncertain. Everyday is a struggle and every minute is torture. We arent allowed to talk or stop working and if we do, the slave drivers shout at us and sometimes even whip us and theres nothing we can do, for we have no choice as nobody knows of the merchants tyranny and more importantly, nobody cares. At night, when I lie down on the hard and cold floor and try to sleep, I pray and hope that tomorrow will be something else, something better, but it never happens, everyday is the same, hell. I sometimes wonder, the cruel merchant exploits lots of children every week and brings them here and makes them weave carpets. He then sells them for thousands, while all we get are a few scraps in the name of food. He commits such horrible sins and yet enjoys his riches and lives lavishly, while we have toil and struggle; I ask myself, What have we done to have to suffer such a life of suffering and misery? Why wont God answer our prayers? Where is he? Why does the merchant enjoy his life to the fullest extent? Is this the justice of God? Has evil truly oppressed good? Why?, Why?. But, I soon realize that there is no point in asking these meaningless questions, because the merchant will still get richer, while we suffer. I feel that the government should do something about this and so should the people who buy these carpets for thousands, they should think of us and how we are suffering. The merchant is exploiting us and using us as an unpaid workforce; he is abusing our rights and we are suffering. He has to be stopped from his exploitation at any cost because this way millions of children are separated from their families and are sent to far away lands to live a life worse than hell. The so-called Human Rights Organization, should do something to free us from this prison. But then again, I doubt that anything will happen. Some people might set out to do some investigations, but they will probably give up or be bribed by the extremely rich merchant, a case will be filed and will keep on circling the government departments and will soon be forgotten underneath a huge pile of papers, while we will continue to live in this hell

Market Failure With Graphical Analysis Economics Essay

Market Failure With Graphical Analysis Economics Essay As Roral Coase indicated, the question to be decided is: Is the value of fish lost greater or less than the product which contamination of the stream makes possible. Thus, it is understand that concept of social efficiency is difficult to achieve because of unexpected costs. Government intervention to the economy can be justified when market fails to achieve social efficiency (Webster, 2003). Social efficiency occurs when marginal social cost (MSC) is equal to marginal social benefit (MSB) (Sloman and Garratt, 2011). The market demand curve reflects MSB from an economic activity and supply curve reflects MSC of it (Begg, 2009). Instead, markets do not always attain an efficient output because of under-production and over-production of some goods and services. Inefficient level of production causes deadweight lost which represents a decrease in total surplus and this is market failure (Parkins, 2012). Under these conditions, Pareto efficiency cannot exist. According to Verhoef (1997, p. 3) Pareto efficiency is, a feasible situation, usually in terms of the allocation of goods and production factors, for which exists no other feasible situation that is weakly preferred by all agents. So, he concludes that markets mostly fail to achieve Pareto efficiency. In the literature, the major causes of market failure are (Parkins, 2012; Sloman and Garratt; 2010; Bregg, 2009; Blink and Dorton, 2007; McAleese, 2004, Morey, 2012): Externalities Public goods Merit and De-merit goods Market power Factor Immobility Imperfect information The major causes of market failure with graphical analysis are discussed as follows. Externalities: Externalities are economic side effects and can be either positive or negative (Grant, 2003). Externalities are costs/benefits that are imposed on people who are not directly involved in economic activities (Henderson, 2005). Positive externalities (external benefits) have beneficial effects while negative externalities (external costs) have harmful effects on third parties (Grant, 2003). Externalities cause market failure since decision makers generally consider only marginal private cost (MPC) and marginal private benefit (MPB) (Grant, 2003). There are four main types of externalities (Sloman and Garratt, 2010): -Negative externalities of production -Positive externalities of production -Negative externalities of consumption -Positive externalities of consumption Production and consumption externalities cause differences between private and social costs of production and also private and social benefits of consumption (Margetts, 2012). Social cost equals to sum of private costs and external costs while social benefits equals to sum of private benefits and external benefits (Sloman and Garratt, 2010; Parkins, 2012). Negative externalities of production: Negative externalities of production occur when the production process imposes external costs on third-parties (Grant, 2003). It exists when MSC of production exceeds MPC of the firm. For example, the production of cars can cause air, noise and visual pollution. Pollution can be harmful for people who are living around the factory. In Figure 1, MSC of production is above MPC. If a factory is interested in profit maximisation, it produces at Q. It is not producing at Q1, where MSC is equal to MSB, so it is market failure. There is an over-production (Q-Q1) that means misallocation of societys resources (Blink and Dorton, 2007). Moreover, the overproduction (Q-Q1) causes welfare loss as well. Positive Externalities of Production: Positive externalities of production occur when the production or provision of some goods or services creates external benefits for third parties (Blink and Dorton, 2007). In this case, MSC of production is less than MPC. For example, if a car factory provides training to its employees, this raises costs of the factory but increases the productivity of workforce. If these employees leave that firm and start working in another firm, this creates benefits for new employers since they do not have to spend money on the training of their new employees. It is figured out in the following graph. In the figure 2, MPC is above MSC. So the car factory produces at Q which is less than the social optimum output level at Q1. Between Q1 and Q, there is a potential welfare gain which is shown by the highlighted area. If the output level increases from Q to Q1, welfare would be gained. In this example, there is underproduction or provision of beneficial output that means misallocation of societys resources and it causes market failure (Blink and Dorton, 2007). Negative externality of consumption: Negative externality of consumption occurs when the consumption of some goods and services impose external costs on third parties (Grant, 2003). It exists when MPB is greater than MSB. For example, the consumption of cigarettes has harmful effects on others who are not smoking, called passive smokers. This may cause cancer. In figure 3, MPB is above MSB. This means that consumers are trying to maximise their private benefits without considering the externalities they create. There is over consumption of cigarettes, so it causes welfare loss to the society. This causes market failure. The welfare loss occurs when MSC is not equal to MSB (Grant, 2003). Positive externalities of consumption: Positive externalities of consumption occur when the consumption of some goods and services impose external benefits on third parties (Grant, 2003). It exists when MPB is less than MSB. For example, consumption of health care provides benefits for the whole society. If a person is healthy he wont transmit diseases to others and healthy people will perform better. In figure 4, MSB is above MPB. The consumption of health services is at Q1 with price P1. On the other hand, the socially optimum output level is at Q2 where MSC is equal to MSB. If consumption of health care services increase, welfare would be gained. Public goods: The two distinct characteristics of public goods are; non-rival and non-excludable (Tataw, 2011; Griffiths and Wall, 2007; McAleese, 2004; Borooah, 2003; Parkin, 2012). Thus, public goods can only be provided by the government and some private firms that are subsidised by the government (Sloman and Garratt, 2010). Lighting and pavement can be given as an example of non-rival goods (Dewar, 2010). Consumption of non-rival goods by one person does not prevent others using/consuming those goods (Grant, 2003). Lighthouses and national defence are examples of non-excludable goods (Johnson-Lans, 2004). Once they are made available for someone, they become available for everyone (Folland et al., 2007; Henderson, 2005). This will give rise to free rider problem. Free riders are the people who receive the benefits from goods and services without paying for them. So public goods are like externality (Begg, 2009). Based on the above conditions, Tataw (2011, p. ?) concludes that, market failures arise because only a small quantity of public goods will be provided inefficiently in private markets. Merit Goods: Merit goods create positive externalities when they are consumed (Margretts, 2012). This means that MSB exceeds MPB. This is presented in figure 5. The benefits of merit goods are not fully esteemed by typical consumers (Tataw, 2011). This causes under consumption and under provision of merit goods. In figure 5, consumption of merit goods are at Q, that is below the socially optimum output level, so this means misallocation of societys resources and cause market failure. De-merit goods: Contrary to merit goods, consumption of de-merit goods have harmful effects on third parties and create negative externalities (Grant, 2003). Cigarettes and alcohol are examples of de-merit goods (Blink and Dorton, 2007). Consumption of alcohol may make the drinkers feel good but they can create disturbance in public places. This is indicated below. In figure 6, MPB exceeds MSB. The consumption of alcohol is at Q1 which is above the socially optimum output level, so there is over consumption. This creates welfare loss. Market Power: In an imperfectly competitive market, firms are not able to produce at socially optimum output level (Sloman and Garratt, 2010) and it causes market failure. For example, in a monopolistic market, there is a single producer who can achieve profit maximisation in a short-run (Margetts, 2012). In this situation, producers produce where MC=MR, and this is reflected in figure 7. In figure 7, monopolistic producer produces at Q1 which is profit maximisation level and it also represents privately optimum output level. Also, Q1 is below the socially optimum output level which is at Q2. In this scenario, benefits obtained by producers are much more than what consumers receive. This is represented by the deadweight loss and highlighted within the figure. Factor Immobility: Two main types of factor immobility are; geographical immobility and occupational immobility (Blink and Dorton, 2007). Immobility of resources, such as labour and capital, might result in misallocation of resources, an increase in unemployment level and productively inefficiency in the market (Grant, 2003). This is reflected in igure 8 with a PPFs curve. In figure 8, points on the curve represent the productive efficient levels. The point E represents the productively inefficient point (Grant, 2003). Imperfect Information: Buyers and sellers may have inefficient choices if they are not fully informed about costs and benefits of consumption or production of goods and services (Grant, 2003; McAlleese, 2004). Imperfect information makes it difficult for economic decision makers for equate marginal benefit and marginal cost, so this causes market failure (Blink and Dorton, 2007). For example, the contribution of the merit goods to consumers is much more than what they think (Grant, 2003). This is partly because of imperfect information (Riley, 2012). In figure 9, there is under consumption of merit goods. This prevents social efficiency and causes market failure. As a conclusion, todays environmental problems and monopolistic markets encourage government interventions and a need for a central authority to coordinate the market mechanism inevitable, after almost eighty years that was first introduced by Keynesian economics school of taught.

Biological Importance Of Water And Lipids

Biological Importance Of Water And Lipids Water is arguably the most essential building block of life; it is the most abundant molecule in cells, whole organisms, and on Earth. Every single organism contains water, typically forming 70 95% of the mass of a cell; a typical human being is compromised of 60% water. Without water, life cannot exist. Water also provides an environment for the organisms that need it to live, as three quarters of the Earth are covered in water. Water is an excellent solvent in general, including polar molecules (eg. glycerol and sugars) and ions. This is because the water molecules are attracted to, collect around, and separate/dissociate the atoms from each other (as the forces of attraction between the negatively charged part of the water molecule and positively charged sodium cation is greater than the forces of attraction between the sodium and chloride ions). Once a chemical is free in its solution, it is then free to roam about and react with other chemicals most processes in organisms are done via this way in solution. In stark contrast, non-polar molecules such as lipids are insoluble in water; when surrounded by water, they tend to be pushed together, as the water molecules become attracted to each other. This is extremely important in reactions such as hydrophobic interactions in protein structure (reactions where atoms dissociate from each other) and in membrane structure, as it increases the stability of these structures. Some molecules have strong intramolecular forces, and do not dissociate in water; however, some do have charged regions on their surface, which result in attracting a layer of water around the molecules. These regions attract water molecules, which are surrounding and are weakly bound to the molecule and cannot move away from its surface this is known as a colloidal suspension. This helps create a concentration gradient for the process of osmosis, as it would for example, assist in drawing water into the blood vessels. Because water is such an effective solvent, it can transport essential substances necessary for the functioning of cells/whole organisms eg. glucose, amino acids, fats, vitamins, respiratory gases etc. Similarly, metabolic reactions (catalysed by enzymes) occur in solution. So, the charged nature of a water molecule means it can act as a solvent, an essential property to living organisms. Water is the transport medium in the blood, in the lymphatic, excretory and digestive systems of animals, and in the vascular tissues of plants. When minerals are absorbed by plants from the soil across root hairs, the minerals are in an aqueous solution of water. The water based movement of sugars, amino acids and hormones (eg. in phloem) and transpiration stream are also in solution. All the transport fluids used in animals like cytoplasm, blood, plasma and tissue fluid are water based. Essential metabolites dissolve completely in water, like glucose, amino acids, minerals and vitamins. Larger molecules like proteins are transported as colloids (molecules which are weakly bound to water molecules). Water being essential to the transportation of necessary substances correlates strongly to water being an excellent solvent, as it is mostly through solution that these substances can get to where they are required. However, water does have other properties which make it suitable for tra nsportation; the low viscosity of water also enables it to flow easily through tubes eg. xylem vessels. Water is a polar molecule, in which it has both positively and negatively charged areas; water consists of two positively charged hydrogen atoms and one negatively charged oxygen atom. As a result of this polarity, opposite (one positive hydrogen atom, one negative oxygen atom) water molecules are attracted to each other and a hydrogen bond is formed. The individual hydrogen bonds are weak, but collectively they make water a very stable medium eg. it remains a liquid over a wide range of temperatures. This property is vital to sustain life in all living organisms. Water is effective as a temperature regulator; its high specific heat capacity (it takes 4.2 Joules of energy to raise one gram of water by 1Â °C it takes a lot of heat energy to significantly raise the temperature of water) allows it to act as a buffer, a necessity in endothermic organisms that need to maintain a constant body temperature in order to fulfil its enzyme potential, and therefore regulate metabolism. The high amount of hydrogen bonds in water also makes it difficult for water molecules to evaporate; when they eventually do, a high amount of energy is released, which in turn acts as a cooling mechanism; this is crucial to life, as internal body temperature needs to be maintained at a constant temperature, any fluctuations can result in a breakdown of essential processes. It must be reinforced that water is a polar molecule, which means it remains a liquid over a wide temperature range, which is good for metabolism and to ensure that aquatic animals in the ocean do not freeze. Water actually has a high, latent heat of fusion from solid to liquid; it requires 300 Joules per gram of ice to melt water, which means that water stays liquid. This is vital for cell cytoplasm, which is made of a high percentage of water: once frozen, a cell would be damaged beyond repair. The freezing point of water is also lowered by solutes, as the soluble molecules disrupt the hydrogen bonds, making the water freeze at a lower temperature and easier to melt into ice. There are many solutes in cytoplasm, ensuring the water will not freeze until well below 0Â °C, protecting the cells. As water cools, its density increases, and the hydrogen bonds between the water molecules take on a more latticed formation (as ice). However, ice floats on the surface of water: this must mean that it must have a lower density than water. Water is at its most dense at 4Â °C; this is because it is at this temperature that the bonds are closest together. When water freezes, the lattice arr angement of its structure loosens slightly, and it will float on the surface. Thereby, the layer of ice would insulate the water below, maintaining its temperature of 4Â °C and aquatic life can continue. Water is useful in sexual reproduction, and is used by animals that use this to create offspring. Water brings male and female gametes together in the process of fertilisation, and in mammals, the foetus develops in a water filled amniotic sac, which provides both physical and thermal stability. Bryophytes (scientific terms for land plants) release antherozoids (male gametes in plants) in moist conditions, which then use flagella to swim to oospheres by chemotaxis; chemotaxis is the phenomenon in which bodily cells, bacteria, and other single-cell/multi-cellular organism can direct their movements according to certain chemicals in their environment. Lipids constitute an essential component of a cell, and has tremendous biological importance. Triglycerides are a major group of lipids formed by the combination of three fatty acid molecules with one glycerol molecule and are the main source of energy in animals. One gram of lipid on oxidation release 9.3 kilocalories of heat however, the same amount of carbohydrate only release 4.5 kilocalories in comparison. These are found in adipose tissue (occupying around 90% of the cell volume), which consists of fat cells designed for constant synthesis and decomposition of triglycerides by the enzyme lipase to produce high-caloric energy. A lot of migratory birds depend on their stored energy to fuel their long distance flights. ATP (Adenosine triphosphate) can be produced when fatty acids are oxidised. Triglycerides can be easily stored as they are insoluble in water, meaning they will not dissolve in anything but chloroform, ethanol and ether. This is due to the long hydrocarbon tails of the fatty acids (consists of a chain of carbon atoms combined with hydrogen). Unlike polar water molecules, the fatty acid tails have no uneven distribution of electrical charge therefore, triglycerides will not mix freely with water molecules. An animal cell membrane is a flexible lipid bilayer. The lipid molecules (mostly phospholipids) that make up the membrane have a polar, hydrophilic head and two hydrophobic hydrocarbon tails. When the lipids are immersed in an aqueous solution, the lipids rapidly bury the tails together, and leave the hydrophilic heads exposed. This is therefore a very useful membrane, as it can easily automatically repair itself if torn. There are three different major types of lipid molecules: phospholipids, cholesterol, and glycolipids. Different membranes have different ratios of the three lipids. A special feature about these lipid membranes is the presence of different proteins on the surface, used for different functions such as cell surface receptors, enzymes, surface antigens, and transporters. Many of the membrane-associated proteins have hydrophilic and hydrophobic regions. The hydrophilic regions are used to help anchor the protein inside of the cell membrane; some proteins extend across the lipid bilayer, others cross the bilayer several times. Lipids are an excellent energy reserve, as they are very rich in carbon-hydrogen bonds, even more so than in carbohydrates. A given mass of lipid would thereby yield more energy on oxidation than the same mass of carbohydrate (it has a higher calorific value). Fat is stored in a number of places in the human body, especially just below the dermis of the skin and around the kidneys. Below the skin, it acts as an insulator against the loss of heat. Blubber is an example of a lipid found in sea mammals (eg. whales), which functions in both providing insulation and buoyancy. The myelin sheath is a dielectric material that is made up of approximately 80% lipid and 20% protein, and forms an insulating layer around the axon, as well as increasing the speed of impulses, due to there being gaps in the myelin sheath (nodes of Ranvier). Fat serves as a protective cushion and provides structural support to help prevent injury to vital organs, such as the heart, liver, kidneys, and spleen. In the lungs, surfactants are an example of a lipid barrier. Surfactants reduce tension, as without it, the wet surfaces of the alveoli in our lungs would stick together, and the lungs would not be able to expand, thus rendering breathing impossible. Fat insulates the body from heat loss and extreme temperature changes; simultaneously, fat deposits under the skin may be metabolized to generate heat in response to lower skin temperatures. Lipids can also act as a metabolic source of water; when oxidised in respiration they are converted to carbon dioxide and water the water could be important in dry habitats eg. the desert kangaroo rat never drinks water, instead surviving on its metabolic water from its fat intake. Sources: Water = http://www.williamhoward.cumbria.sch.uk/intranet/Science/KS5/Abiology/Factsheets/factsheets1-72/Bio%20Press%20Factsheets/30%20water%20page%201.pdf, Biology 1 textbook